Structure and Function of the Ocean Economy
1. Outcome
1After working through this Circular, readers will be able to compile indicators characterising the structure and function of the ocean economy: sector composition by industry classification, sectoral shares of gross value added (GVA) and employment, growth and productivity indicators, net ocean GVA adjusted for resource depletion, and trade and investment patterns. The guidance also provides a step-by-step compilation procedure for extracting ocean economy sub-matrices from national supply and use tables and deriving structural indicators from them.
2The guidance responds to high demand from governments seeking to characterise their ocean economies for national budget processes, economic planning, and international reporting—including reporting against Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Life Below Water), particularly target 14.7 on economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources. These indicators build directly on the ocean economy thematic and extended accounts described in TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean and support applications in national budget processes addressed in TG-1.1 OA and National Budget Processes. The relationship between ocean economy structure and multilateral environmental agreement indicators, including SDG 14, is addressed further in TG-2.10 MEA Indicators.
2. Requirements
1Essential prerequisites:
- 2TG-0.1 General Introduction to Ocean Accounts — for the conceptual framework and key components of Ocean Accounts
- 3TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean — for the methodological framework for compiling ocean economy thematic and extended accounts, including industry classifications and supply and use tables
4Helpful background:
- 5TG-0.2 Overview of Relevant Statistical Standards — for the international statistical standards underpinning ocean accounting, including the SNA 2025, SEEA, ISIC classification, and the methodological principles that govern thematic and extended accounts
3. Guidance Material
1Governments preparing national budgets need to demonstrate the ocean economy’s contribution to GDP, employment, and exports (TG-1.1 OA and National Budget Processes). Budget officials require quantified evidence of a sector’s contribution to national income and employment to assess the rationale for public expenditure on ocean management, fisheries governance, port infrastructure, and marine environmental protection. The indicators in this Circular provide the analytical tools for these assessments, translating the detailed accounting data compiled under TG-3.3 into policy-ready metrics that can populate the budget presentation structures described in TG-1.1 Section 3.3. Specifically, TG-1.1 identifies a four-row indicator structure—GDP contribution, employment, exports, and fish protein supply—that budget submissions should address; the indicator derivation methods in this Circular set out how compilers produce each of these figures from ocean economy accounts.
2This Circular presents a framework for deriving structural and functional indicators from ocean economy accounts. The approach follows established practices from the System of National Accounts (SNA 2025)1, draws on analogous approaches developed for tourism in the Statistical Framework for Measuring the Sustainability of Tourism (SF-MST)2, and builds on the ocean economy thematic and extended accounting methodology described in the SEEA Ecosystem Accounting3. The SF-MST is a useful analogue because, like ocean economy measurement, tourism measurement involves delineating a functional segment of the economy that cuts across multiple ISIC industries rather than corresponding neatly to a single industrial classification, and the indicator derivation approaches developed for tourism can be adapted effectively for ocean economy structural analysis.
3.1 Ocean Economy Structure Framework
1The structure of the ocean economy describes how economic activity is distributed across different industries, products, and institutional sectors. A full structural analysis enables comparison of the ocean economy to the broader national economy, identification of dominant and emerging sectors, and assessment of concentration and diversification. Figure 2.5.1 illustrates the end-to-end data pipeline that produces these structural indicators, from raw statistical inputs through harmonisation and the supply-use table to the indicators reported in budget and MEA applications.
Figure 2.5.1 National statistical inputs flow through collection and harmonisation into a supply-use table that yields ocean economy indicators. Five first-order aggregates (output, GVA, employment, exports, GFCF) feed budget and MEA uses; second-order indicators sit downstream. Source: TG-2.5 draft §3.1 (Supply-Use Table to indicator derivation trace) and §3.7 (compilation procedure / data pipeline); SNA 2025 Ch.15 (supply and use tables) and Ch.7 (production account); ISIC Rev.4 (UN 2008) for ocean industry classification. Adapted from: SF-MST (UNWTO 2024) tourism measurement framework -- the draft's primary methodological analogue; OECD The Ocean Economy in 2030 (2016).
Related terminology
1Terms describing ocean and coastal economic activity are used inconsistently across statistical, development, and policy literatures. Statistical agencies (OECD, NOAA) use ocean economy (and nationally marine economy) for the measured baseline of all ocean-related activity; development bodies (World Bank, UN) use blue economy or sustainable ocean economy for an aspirational framework that couples growth with environmental stewardship and social equity. This Circular adopts the following distinctions:
| Term | Definition adopted | Primary source |
|---|---|---|
| Ocean economy | The sum of the economic activities of ocean-based industries, together with the assets, goods and services provided by marine ecosystems. Used throughout this Circular as the conceptual scope of the thematic and extended accounts in TG-3.3. | OECD (2016)4; NOAA (LeBoeuf et al. 2024)5 |
| Marine economy | A national statistical realisation of the ocean economy concept within a defined geographical scope (e.g. the U.S. Marine Economy Satellite Account, which includes the Great Lakes). Not a distinct concept. | NOAA (LeBoeuf et al. 2024)5 |
| Blue economy | The sustainable, equitable and socially inclusive use of ocean resources to benefit economies, livelihoods, and ecosystem health. An aspirational frame requiring that growth reconcile with environmental protection and social equity. | World Bank & UNDESA (2017)6; UN (2014)7 |
| Sustainable ocean economy | Substantively equivalent to the blue economy; framed as an action agenda linking effective protection, sustainable production, and equitable prosperity. | High Level Panel (2020)8 |
| EU blue economy | All established and emerging sectoral and cross-sectoral economic activities based on or related to oceans, seas, and coasts, used as a target framework for the EU green transition. | European Commission9 |
| Ocean enterprise | All entities providing infrastructure and capacity for ocean observation, measurement and forecasting, or delivering operational ocean information products and services. Captured within ocean economy accounts via the relevant ISIC classes (notably 7210 and parts of 6201/6311). | NOAA (LeBoeuf et al. 2024)5 |
| New blue economy | Emphasises the growing role of the ocean enterprise within the blue economy. Not a separate accounting boundary. | NOAA (LeBoeuf et al. 2024)5 |
2Sustainability-related extensions of ocean economy measurement — net ocean GVA (§3.4), depletion adjustment, and sustainable ocean finance (§3.6) — support blue economy reporting but do not by themselves constitute a blue economy account. Compilers should disclose which term a published account uses and its definitional source so that cross-country comparisons are interpretable.
Analytical dimensions
1Structural analysis of the ocean economy operates across four key dimensions10:
- 2
Industry composition — the distribution of ocean economic activity across industries classified according to ISIC, revealing which types of production dominate the ocean economy (e.g., fishing, shipping, offshore energy)
- 3
Product composition — the distribution of ocean-characteristic products according to CPC, revealing what goods and services the ocean economy produces
- 4
Institutional sector composition — the distribution of ocean economic activity by institutional sector (corporations, government, households, non-profit institutions), revealing ownership and control patterns
- 5
Spatial composition — the distribution of ocean economic activity across regions or coastal zones, revealing geographic concentration and regional dependencies. Spatial analysis connects to the treatment of coastal tourism in TG-3.3 Section 3.4 and may inform future guidance on regional ocean accounts compilation11.
Geographic boundaries
Relationship to thematic and extended accounts
1Structural indicators are derived from the ocean economy thematic and extended accounts described in TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean. For the thematic and extended accounts framework (SNA 2025 Chapter 38), see TG-0.2 Standards and Frameworks. The ocean economy accounts described in this Circular are thematic accounts in the SNA 2025 sense: they disaggregate and rearrange items within the integrated framework of national accounts. The supply and use tables (SUTs) compiled for the ocean economy provide the ‘data foundation’ for structural analysis13. From balanced SUTs, the following can be derived:
- 2Output by industry and product
- 3Gross value added by industry
- 4Employment by industry
- 5Imports and exports of ocean-characteristic products
- 6Gross fixed capital formation by industry
7These aggregates form the basis for the indicators presented in subsequent sections.
Construction methods
1Ocean economy accounts can be constructed using two approaches, which differ in data requirements and analytical scope12:
2Type 1 (thematic approach) selects value-added data for designated ocean industries directly from existing national accounts production data. Each ocean industry’s GVA is identified from the national production account and reported separately. This approach is lighter-weight, appropriate where fully balanced supply and use tables are not available, and lends itself to regional disaggregation more readily than the supply-use approach. Price adjustment uses a broad producer price index at the industry level. The core four indicators — gross output, GVA, employment, and GFCF — can be compiled from this approach.
3Type 2 (supply-use framework) fully integrates ocean accounts within national input-output tables, measuring all inter-industry relationships at both product and industry level. This enables estimation of indirect and induced economic effects, reveals linkages between ocean industries and the rest of the economy, and requires product-level price deflators for volume measurement. This is the approach elaborated in §3.7 of this Circular14.
4Compilers should select the approach matched to their data infrastructure. Type 1 is a valid and publishable starting point; migration to Type 2 is recommended as the end-state when fully balanced SUTs are available.
5Note on production versus expenditure approaches: Ocean accounts are built on the production (value-added) approach to GDP measurement. Whilst many countries publish their headline GDP figure using the expenditure approach (consumption + investment + government expenditure + net exports), the expenditure approach yields aggregate final demand totals and does not identify industry-level contributions. Both approaches yield the same GDP total under SNA 2025, but only the production approach enables identification of ocean economy industry composition. Compilers working within statistical systems that foreground expenditure-side figures should ensure that production-account data are accessed for ocean industry disaggregation.
SUT-to-indicator derivation trace
1The derivation of structural indicators follows a specific path from the cells of the ocean economy SUTs compiled under TG-3.3 Section 3.4 (Table 1) to the indicators presented in this Circular. Compilers should trace each indicator to its source aggregate to ensure consistency between accounts and indicators:
- 2GVA share by industry — the GVA row in the Use Table provides gross value added for each ocean industry column (e.g., Marine Fishing, Aquaculture, Shipping, Ports, Tourism). Each cell is the numerator for the sector GVA share indicator in Section 3.2.
- 3Employment share by industry — the labour inputs row (hours worked or persons employed) at the bottom of the Use Table provides the numerator for the employment share indicator.
- 4Export share — the Exports column in the Use Table, summed across ocean-characteristic product rows (fish products, transport services, tourism services), provides the ocean economy exports aggregate used in Section 3.5.
- 5Investment indicators — the GFCF column in the Use Table records capital formation by product type; the GFCF row by industry provides the industry-level investment data for investment rate calculations.
- 6Productivity — labour productivity for each ocean industry is computed by dividing the GVA cell for that industry by the corresponding labour inputs cell.
7This explicit mapping ensures that every indicator in this Circular can be traced back to a specific cell or aggregate in the ocean economy SUTs, providing a clear audit trail from accounts to indicators to policy applications.
3.2 Sector Composition Indicators
1Sector composition indicators describe the relative importance of different industries within the ocean economy, enabling identification of dominant sectors, comparison with national industry structure, and tracking of structural change over time.
Classification framework
1Ocean economy industries are classified using the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC)15. Following the categorisation in TG-3.3 Section 3.3, ocean industries are grouped as:
2Core ocean-dependent industries (wholly ocean-related). Core ocean-dependent industries are identified at the division or class level depending on whether the entire division is ocean-related or only specific classes within a broader division:
- 3ISIC Division 03: Fishing and aquaculture
- 6ISIC Division 50: Water transport
- 9ISIC Division 06: Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas (offshore portion)
- 10ISIC Class 3510: Electric power generation, transmission and distribution (offshore wind, tidal, wave portion)
11Ocean-related industries (partially ocean-related, requiring estimation of ocean share):
- 12ISIC Class 1020: Processing and preserving of fish, crustaceans and molluscs
- 13ISIC Class 3011: Building of ships and floating structures
- 14ISIC Class 3012: Building of pleasure and sporting boats
- 15ISIC Class 5222: Service activities incidental to water transportation
- 16ISIC Class 5224: Cargo handling (port cargo handling share)
- 17ISIC Class 5510: Short-term accommodation activities (coastal tourism share)
- 18ISIC Class 7210: Research and experimental development (marine research share)
- 19ISIC Class 8423: Public order and safety activities (coast guard, maritime enforcement share)
- 20ISIC Class 9319: Other sports activities (marine sports and recreation share)
21This listing is illustrative and should be verified against the fuller classification in TG-3.3 Section 3.3, which provides the authoritative industry concordance for ocean economy accounts. Compilers should adapt the industry scope to their national circumstances and document the specific ISIC classes included. For offshore oil and gas extraction and offshore renewable energy, additional classification detail is provided in TG-3.10 Offshore Energy.
Scope decisions and international practice
1A review of 35 national ocean account definitions identifies over 50 possible industries for inclusion, with inclusion rates ranging from 96% (commercial fishing) to under 10% for specialised services12. The major sectors consistently included across national programmes are: living resources, minerals and oil and gas, marine construction, tourism and recreation, shipbuilding and repair, marine energy, marine research and education, government and public administration, and marine services.
2Three national programmes illustrate how scope decisions legitimately vary with national context, as summarised in Table 3.2.1 below.14
| Country | Approach |
|---|---|
| Portugal | Applies a value-chain approach across three tiers, excludes purely spatial criteria to avoid overstating the ocean component, and includes emerging sectors such as marine biotechnology, R&D, maritime finance, and maritime governance. |
| United States | Applies geographic-functional criteria: activities occurring on ocean waters, requiring ocean access or adjacency, or producing outputs intended for ocean use. |
| Norway | Adopts the OECD 7-activity-type definition with explicit emphasis on knowledge-intensive services, marine R&D, and innovation investment. |
3The classification structure selected should reflect the country’s economic composition, data availability, and policy goals, consistent with the principles of national accounting.
4Emerging sectors and blue technology. Innovative ocean technologies — including marine renewables, marine biotechnology, robotic marine vehicles, and advanced ICT applications in marine contexts — are often not yet codified in ISIC and may be small relative to core sectors in the early years of production. Best practice, consistent with EU and OECD approaches, is to report these sectors separately from core accounts at a level of detail appropriate to available information, rather than integrating them into existing ISIC classes where no code exists12.
Key composition indicators
1The following indicators characterise sector composition16:
2Output share by industry $$\text{Output share}_i = \frac{\text{Output}_i}{\sum_j \text{Output}_j} \times 100$$
3where $i$ denotes an individual ocean industry and $j$ indexes all ocean industries.
4GVA share by industry $$\text{GVA share}_i = \frac{\text{GVA}_i}{\sum_j \text{GVA}_j} \times 100$$
5This indicator reveals the relative contribution of each industry to total ocean economy value added. In the Ocean Accounts Framework (TG-0.1), the GDP contribution, industry output, and supply-use relationships measured through these structural indicators correspond to Edge E3 (monetary flows between assets and economic sectors), capturing the bidirectional monetary flows that characterise the ocean economy’s productive structure.
6Employment share by industry $$\text{Employment share}_i = \frac{\text{Employment}_i}{\sum_j \text{Employment}_j} \times 100$$
7Employment may be measured as number of persons employed, number of jobs, hours worked, or full-time equivalent (FTE) positions17. For headline reporting, persons employed is recommended as the default measure, with FTE reported as a supplementary indicator where seasonal or part-time employment is significant.
8Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) for concentration $$\text{HHI} = \sum_i \left(\frac{\text{GVA}_i}{\sum_j \text{GVA}_j} \times 100\right)^2$$
9The HHI ranges from near zero (highly diversified) to 10,000 (single industry). In antitrust analysis, an HHI above 2,500 is conventionally treated as indicating high concentration. For ocean economy sectoral analysis, however, compilers should interpret HHI values with caution. Small island developing States (SIDS) and countries with narrow resource endowments may exhibit structurally higher concentration in their ocean economies—dominated, for example, by fisheries and tourism—without this necessarily indicating a policy concern in the same way that high market concentration does. Compilers should present the HHI alongside the detailed composition data in Table 3.1 so that users can assess whether concentration reflects structural characteristics of the economy or an imbalance that warrants policy attention.
Comparative analysis
1Recommended comparisons include:
- 2
Comparison to national economy — comparing ocean industry shares to their shares in the national economy reveals specialisation patterns
- 3
Comparison over time — tracking composition changes reveals structural transformation (e.g., growth of offshore energy relative to traditional fishing)
- 4
International comparison — comparing ocean economy structure across countries reveals different endowments and development patterns
5Table 3.1 presents sector composition indicators for a hypothetical medium-income coastal state (“Country A”) with a total GDP of approximately USD 50 billion, total employment of 10 million persons, and an ocean economy representing 3.5 per cent of GDP. All monetary values are expressed in millions of US dollars.
6Table 3.1: Ocean economy sector composition (Country A, illustrative)
| Industry (ISIC) | Output (million USD) | GVA (million USD) | Employment (persons) | Output share (%) | GVA share (%) | Employment share (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coastal and marine tourism (partial 5510, 5610, 9319) | 933 | 560 | 153,000 | 27.2 | 32.0 | 51.0 |
| Offshore oil and gas (06) | 933 | 420 | 24,000 | 27.1 | 24.0 | 8.0 |
| Maritime transport and ports (501, 5222, 5224) | 630 | 315 | 36,000 | 18.3 | 18.0 | 12.0 |
| Marine living resources (0311, 0321, 1020) | 318 | 175 | 54,000 | 9.3 | 10.0 | 18.0 |
| Shipbuilding and repair (3011, 3012) | 308 | 123 | 18,000 | 9.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 |
| Marine renewable energy (3510 partial) | 140 | 70 | 6,000 | 4.1 | 4.0 | 2.0 |
| Other ocean industries (7210, 8423, etc.) | 174 | 87 | 9,000 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 3.0 |
| Total ocean economy | 3,436 | 1,750 | 300,000 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
7The HHI computed from the GVA shares in Table 3.1 is approximately 2,114 (= 32.0^2 + 24.0^2 + 18.0^2 + 10.0^2 + 7.0^2 + 4.0^2 + 5.0^2), indicating moderate concentration. Two sectors—coastal and marine tourism and offshore energy—together account for 56 per cent of ocean GVA, a pattern common in medium-income coastal states with established hydrocarbon production.
8To make comparative analysis concrete, Table 3.1a presents a recommended format for comparing ocean economy structure against the national economy. This comparative presentation, adapted from the SF-MST approach to characterising tourism industries (SF-MST Table 3.3), enables identification of sectors in which the ocean economy is relatively more or less intensive than the national economy as a whole.
9Table 3.1a: Ocean economy versus national economy structure (Country A, illustrative)
| Indicator | Ocean economy | National economy | Ocean share of national (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Total output (million USD) | 3,436 | 100,000 | 3.4 |
| GVA (million USD) | 1,750 | 50,000 | 3.5 |
| Employment (persons) | 300,000 | 10,000,000 | 3.0 |
| GVA per person employed (USD) | 5,833 | 5,000 | 116.7 |
| Average compensation per employee (USD) | 3,208 | 3,000 | 106.9 |
| GFCF (million USD) | 380 | 11,000 | 3.5 |
| Exports (million USD) | 620 | 12,000 | 5.2 |
10The data in Table 3.1a reveal that whilst the ocean economy accounts for 3.5 per cent of GDP, it accounts for only 3.0 per cent of employment, implying slightly above-average labour productivity. The ocean economy’s share of exports (5.2 per cent) exceeds its share of GDP, indicating an outward orientation driven by fish product exports and maritime transport services.
Budget-ready summary
1Table 3.1b maps the indicators derived from Tables 3.1 and 3.1a directly to the four-row budget presentation structure specified in TG-1.1 Section 3.3 (Table 1). This table provides the format in which ocean economy indicators should be presented in national budget submissions to demonstrate the sector’s contribution to the national economy.
2Table 3.1b: Ocean economy contribution — budget presentation format (Country A, illustrative)
| Indicator | Ocean economy | National total | Ocean share (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| GDP contribution (million USD) | 1,750 | 50,000 | 3.5 |
| Employment (thousand persons) | 300 | 10,000 | 3.0 |
| Exports (million USD) | 620 | 12,000 | 5.2 |
| Fish protein supply (thousand tonnes) | 285 | 340 | 83.8 |
3.3 Growth and Productivity Indicators
1Growth and productivity indicators measure the dynamic performance of the ocean economy, revealing whether it is expanding or contracting, whether growth is generating productivity improvements, and how ocean economy performance compares to the broader economy.
Growth indicators
1Nominal growth rate $$\text{Growth rate}t = \frac{X_t - X{t-1}}{X_{t-1}} \times 100$$
2where $X$ is the variable of interest (output, GVA, employment) and $t$ is the reference period.
3Real growth rate — adjusts for price changes using appropriate deflators18: $$\text{Real growth rate}t = \frac{X_t / P_t - X{t-1} / P_{t-1}}{X_{t-1} / P_{t-1}} \times 100$$
4where $P$ is the relevant price index. The choice of deflator is important for ocean economy aggregates because price movements in ocean industries can diverge substantially from economy-wide trends. Offshore energy output, for example, is strongly influenced by international oil and gas price indices, whilst maritime transport output responds to freight rate indices such as the Baltic Exchange indices. Compilers should use industry-specific deflators where available rather than applying the aggregate GDP deflator to all ocean industries. Where sector-specific deflators are unavailable, compilers should document the deflator used and assess the potential bias introduced. Methodological guidance on deflation and volume measurement is provided in SNA 2025 Chapter 18, and further context on the statistical standards governing price and volume measures is available in TG-0.2 Overview of Relevant Statistical Standards.
5Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) — measures average annual growth over multiple periods: $$\text{CAGR} = \left(\frac{X_T}{X_0}\right)^{1/T} - 1$$
6where $X_0$ is the value at the beginning of the period, $X_T$ is the value at the end, and $T$ is the number of years between them.
Productivity indicators
1Productivity measures the efficiency with which inputs are transformed into outputs. Two measures are particularly relevant for ocean economy analysis19:
2Labour productivity $$\text{Labour productivity} = \frac{\text{GVA}}{\text{Employment}}$$
3This can be expressed per person employed, per job, or per hour worked. Labour productivity in ocean industries can be compared to national averages to assess relative efficiency.
4Capital productivity (where capital stock data are available) $$\text{Capital productivity} = \frac{\text{GVA}}{\text{Capital stock}}$$
5Capital stock data for ocean industries are often limited, particularly for industries such as offshore energy and maritime transport where assets are mobile and may be registered in multiple jurisdictions. Where direct capital stock data are unavailable, compilers may estimate capital stocks using the perpetual inventory method, applying asset-specific depreciation rates to historical investment series. The asset valuation methodology described in TG-3.1 Asset Accounts provides relevant guidance on produced capital valuation that can be adapted for ocean industries, particularly for vessels, port infrastructure, and offshore installations20.
6Multi-factor productivity growth requires more sophisticated analysis combining labour, capital, and intermediate inputs, typically using growth accounting or index number methods21.
Ocean economy contribution to GDP growth
1A particularly policy-relevant indicator is the contribution of the ocean economy to overall GDP growth22:
2$$\text{Contribution to GDP growth} = \frac{\Delta \text{Ocean GVA}}{\text{GDP}_{t-1}} \times 100$$
3This measures the percentage point contribution of ocean economy growth to national GDP growth. This indicator is directly relevant for the budget justifications addressed in TG-1.1 OA and National Budget Processes and for demonstrating the economic importance of ocean management investment.
3.4 Net Ocean GVA
1Gross measures of ocean economy value added do not account for the depletion of the marine natural resources on which many ocean industries depend. The SNA 2025 treats depletion of non-produced natural resources as a cost of production (SNA 2025 Chapter 13, para 13.26; see also the net value added formula in Chapter 15, para 15.137), and TG-1.1 Section 3.1 identifies net domestic product (NDP) as the conceptually preferred measure of economic growth23. For the ocean economy, this has particular significance because fisheries, offshore minerals, and other extractive ocean industries draw down natural capital stocks.
2Net ocean GVA is defined as:
3$$\text{Net ocean GVA} = \text{Gross ocean GVA} - \text{Depletion of marine natural resources}$$
4Depletion of marine natural resources includes:
- 5Depletion of fish stocks — the decline in the economic value of fish stock assets due to harvesting in excess of natural regeneration. Estimation methods are described in TG-3.1 Asset Accounts, drawing on stock assessment data from TG-6.7 Fisheries Accounting: Integrating Stock Assessment.
- 6Depletion of seabed minerals — the decline in the economic value of offshore mineral and hydrocarbon reserves due to extraction. Valuation follows the SNA 2025 treatment of subsoil assets (Chapter 15, rows 22—23 of the Use Table).
7Where depletion estimates are available, compilers should present both gross and net measures of ocean GVA side by side. The difference between gross and net ocean GVA reveals the extent to which the ocean economy’s recorded economic contribution depends on the drawdown of natural capital. A large and growing gap between gross and net ocean GVA signals unsustainable resource use patterns that should inform policy deliberations under medium-term expenditure frameworks (TG-1.1 Section 3.4). In the Country A illustration (Table 3.1), if fish stock depletion is estimated at USD 35 million and offshore mineral depletion at USD 60 million per year, net ocean GVA would be USD 1,655 million—approximately 5.4 per cent below the gross figure of USD 1,750 million.
3.5 Employment Structure
1Employment structure indicators characterise the labour market dimensions of the ocean economy, informing policies on education, training, migration, and social protection.
Employment levels and shares
1Ocean economy employment share $$\text{Employment share} = \frac{\text{Ocean employment}}{\text{Total national employment}} \times 100$$
2Industry-specific employment — employment in each ocean industry, enabling analysis of which sectors are most labour-intensive24.
Employment characteristics
1Beyond aggregate employment, structural analysis should capture employment quality and composition25:
2Status in employment
7Working time
11Demographic characteristics
- 12Gender composition (share of women in ocean employment)
- 13Age structure
- 14Educational attainment
- 15Nationality (share of migrant workers)
16Decent work indicators following the ILO Decent Work Measurement Framework26:
- 17Share of formal versus informal employment
- 18Wage levels relative to national average
- 19Working conditions indicators
- 20Social protection coverage
21The distinction between formal and informal employment is particularly relevant for small-scale fisheries, where employment is often characterised by own-account work, seasonal or part-time engagement, and limited coverage by labour regulations or social protection schemes. Measuring employment in small-scale fisheries presents methodological challenges: workers may not appear in business registers, labour force surveys may undercount seasonal or part-time fishing activity, and the boundary between subsistence fishing and commercial fishing can be difficult to establish. Compilers should consider supplementing standard data sources with fisheries census data, community-based surveys, and vessel registry information. Employment patterns in aquaculture, including the prevalence of informal and seasonal work in coastal communities, are addressed in TG-3.9 Aquaculture. The connection between employment data and stock management is discussed in TG-6.7 Fisheries Accounting: Integrating Stock Assessment.
22Table 3.2 presents employment structure indicators for Country A, populated with synthetic data reflecting typical patterns observed in medium-income coastal states.
23Table 3.2: Ocean economy employment structure (Country A, illustrative)
| Indicator | Marine fishing | Aquaculture | Maritime transport | Offshore energy | Shipbuilding | Coastal tourism | Total ocean |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Persons employed | 32,000 | 22,000 | 36,000 | 24,000 | 18,000 | 153,000 | 300,000 |
| FTE employment | 24,000 | 18,000 | 35,000 | 24,000 | 17,500 | 120,000 | 250,000 |
| Share female (%) | 15 | 35 | 12 | 15 | 8 | 55 | 38 |
| Share youth <25 (%) | 22 | 28 | 15 | 10 | 18 | 35 | 26 |
| Share informal (%) | 60 | 40 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 30 | 28 |
| Avg. wage (USD/month) | 280 | 320 | 750 | 2,800 | 680 | 350 | 490 |
| Productivity index (economy = 100) | 55 | 55 | 180 | 350 | 120 | 65 | 117 |
24Marine fishing exhibits the highest informality rate (60 per cent) and the lowest female participation (15 per cent), consistent with the artisanal and small-scale character of much of the sector. Coastal tourism is the largest employer by a substantial margin (153,000 persons, or 51 per cent of ocean employment), but it has the highest rate of part-time and seasonal work, as reflected in the gap between persons employed and FTE employment. Offshore energy employs relatively few workers (24,000 persons) but generates the highest wages and highest productivity index (350), reflecting the capital-intensive nature of offshore oil, gas, and wind operations. These patterns inform workforce development policies, gender mainstreaming strategies, and social protection design for ocean-dependent communities.
Spatial distribution of employment
1Spatial analysis of ocean employment reveals regional concentration, coastal community dependence, and commuting patterns between coastal and inland areas. This spatial dimension connects to livelihood dependency analysis in TG-2.3 Livelihood Dependencies.
3.6 Trade and Investment Indicators
1Trade and investment indicators reveal the ocean economy’s external orientation and its capacity for growth through capital accumulation.
Trade indicators
1Ocean economy exports $$\text{Export share} = \frac{\text{Exports of ocean products}}{\text{Total national exports}} \times 100$$
2Ocean exports include:
- 3Fish and fishery products
- 4Maritime transport services
- 5Offshore oil and gas (where applicable)
- 6Cruise and marine tourism receipts
- 7Ship repair services
8Ocean economy imports — imports of ocean-characteristic products, including:
- 9Fishing vessels and equipment
- 10Maritime transport services (freight payments)
- 11Offshore drilling equipment
- 12Imported fish for processing
13Trade balance for ocean economy $$\text{Ocean trade balance} = \text{Ocean exports} - \text{Ocean imports}$$
14Revealed comparative advantage — indicates whether a country specialises in ocean products relative to its overall trade pattern27: $$\text{RCA}_i = \frac{(X_i / X)}{(X_i^{world} / X^{world})}$$
15where $X_i$ is exports of ocean product $i$, $X$ is total exports, $X_i^{world}$ is world exports of ocean product $i$, and $X^{world}$ is total world exports. An RCA > 1 indicates comparative advantage.
16Maritime transport services trade requires careful treatment due to the distinction between resident and non-resident operators. The spatial treatment of economic activities within the Exclusive Economic Zone is addressed in TG-3.3 Section 3.1. The Balance of Payments Manual (BPM6; BPM7, forthcoming) provides detailed guidance on recording maritime transport services in the current account, including the allocation of freight charges between importing and exporting economies and the treatment of services provided by non-resident carriers28. Compilers should ensure that trade in maritime transport services is recorded consistently between the ocean economy accounts and the balance of payments.
Investment indicators
1Gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) in ocean industries
2Ocean economy investment includes:
- 3Vessels (fishing boats, cargo ships, cruise ships)
- 4Port infrastructure (harbours, terminals, cargo handling equipment)
- 5Offshore platforms and installations
- 6Aquaculture facilities
- 7Coastal tourism infrastructure
8Investment rate $$\text{Investment rate} = \frac{\text{Ocean GFCF}}{\text{Ocean GVA}} \times 100$$
9Investment share $$\text{Investment share} = \frac{\text{Ocean GFCF}}{\text{Total national GFCF}} \times 100$$
10This reveals the ocean economy’s share of national capital formation.
11Foreign direct investment (FDI) in ocean sectors — where data permit, the stock and flow of FDI in ocean industries provides insight into external capital participation. This may be particularly significant in offshore energy, maritime transport, and port operations29. FDI data by detailed industry are often limited and may be subject to confidentiality constraints where few enterprises operate in a given industry. Where direct FDI data are unavailable, compilers may use alternative approaches such as ownership information from business registers, investment project tracking databases, or qualitative assessments based on known foreign ownership in key ocean industries. Detailed treatment of investment analysis for the ocean economy is provided in TG-2.6 Ocean Investment.
Sustainable ocean finance
1Beyond conventional GFCF, the investment dimension of the ocean economy increasingly includes sustainable ocean finance instruments such as blue bonds, blue loans, and blue equity investments. These instruments channel capital towards ocean-related activities that meet defined environmental sustainability criteria. Whilst sustainable finance flows are not recorded as GFCF in the national accounts (they represent financial transactions rather than acquisition of produced assets), their scale and growth constitute an important structural characteristic of the ocean economy’s financing landscape. The methodology for measuring sustainable ocean finance, including classification criteria, data sources, and indicator definitions, is addressed in TG-2.6 Ocean Investment Section 3.4.
2Table 3.3 presents trade and investment indicators for Country A.
3Table 3.3: Ocean economy trade and investment (Country A, illustrative)
| Indicator | Value (million USD) | Share of national total (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Ocean economy exports | 620 | 5.2 |
| - Fish and fishery products | 215 | 1.8 |
| - Maritime transport services | 240 | 2.0 |
| - Other ocean products | 165 | 1.4 |
| Ocean economy imports | 480 | 3.8 |
| Ocean trade balance | 140 | — |
| Ocean GFCF | 380 | 3.5 |
| - Vessels | 95 | — |
| - Port infrastructure | 110 | — |
| - Offshore installations | 125 | — |
| - Other ocean assets | 50 | — |
| FDI stock in ocean industries | 1,200 | 4.8 |
Government expenditure on ocean-related functions
1Government expenditure on ocean-related activities can be identified using the Classification of the Functions of Government (COFOG)30. Table 3.4 maps specific COFOG classes to ocean-related government functions, adapted from the SF-MST approach to identifying tourism-related government functions (SF-MST Table 3.9)31.
2Table 3.4: COFOG classes relevant to ocean economy functions
| COFOG Division | COFOG Class | Ocean-related function |
|---|---|---|
| 01 General public services | 01.3 General services | Maritime administration, hydrographic services |
| 03 Public order and safety | 03.1 Police services | Coast guard, maritime enforcement |
| 04 Economic affairs | 04.2 Agriculture, forestry, fishing | Fisheries management, aquaculture support |
| 04 Economic affairs | 04.5 Transport | Maritime transport infrastructure, port development |
| 04 Economic affairs | 04.7 Other industries | Marine biotechnology, ocean industry support |
| 05 Environmental protection | 05.1 Waste management | Marine pollution remediation |
| 05 Environmental protection | 05.2 Wastewater management | Coastal wastewater treatment |
| 05 Environmental protection | 05.4 Protection of biodiversity | Marine protected area management |
| 06 Housing and community | 06.3 Water supply | Desalination |
| 07 Health | 07.4 Public health services | Marine food safety |
| 08 Recreation, culture | 08.1 Recreational and sporting | Coastal recreation infrastructure |
| 09 Education | 09.4 Tertiary education | Maritime education and training |
| 10 Social protection | 10.5 Unemployment | Fisheries worker adjustment programmes |
3This mapping supports analysis of public investment in ocean management addressed in TG-1.1 OA and National Budget Processes.
3.7 Compilation Procedure
1The procedure below is adapted from the SNA 2025 treatment of supply and use tables (Chapter 15, paras 15.9, 15.130—15.139) and draws on the analogous approach developed for tourism in the SF-MST (paras 2.30—2.31, 3.27—3.28)32.
Step-by-step compilation
1Step 1: Identify ocean economy industries by ISIC code. Using the TG-3.3 Section 3.3 concordance (Table 2), identify all ISIC classes that constitute the ocean economy in the compiling country. For each class, determine whether it is wholly ocean-dependent (ocean ratio = 1.0) or partially ocean-related (ocean ratio < 1.0).
2Step 2: Extract ocean economy sub-matrices from national SUTs. From the balanced national supply and use tables, extract the columns corresponding to identified ocean economy industries. This creates an ocean economy supply table and an ocean economy use table that are subsets of the national tables. If the national SUTs are published at a level of aggregation above individual ISIC classes (e.g., at division level), compilers may need to use supplementary data sources—business surveys (TG-4.2) and administrative records (TG-4.3)—to disaggregate the relevant columns.
3Step 3: Determine the ocean economy ratio for each industry. For partially ocean-related industries, estimate the share of output directly attributable to ocean-related activity (applying the ocean-share ratio approach; see Section 3 introduction). For example, if 40 per cent of short-term accommodation output in a coastal region serves marine tourism demand, the ocean economy ratio for that industry is 0.40.
4Three methods exist for estimating these ratios1214:
- 5Survey-based measurement — ask firms directly what share of output is ocean-related; the most accurate approach but resource-intensive; appropriate where a dedicated ocean-economy survey exists or where the national business survey can be modified to include ocean-relationship questions
- 6Inference from other data (ratio-based estimation) — use a proxy variable to estimate the partial: geographic location of establishments (using GIS and coastal proximity buffers), administrative data (e.g., share of offshore drilling permits in total permits, share of cargo tonnage through marine ports), vessel registration data, or the proportion of a commodity’s output sourced from offshore operations. Requires access to geo-coded data and appropriate proxy identification.
- 7Expert judgement (Delphi process) — where surveys are unavailable and auxiliary data are insufficient; a structured iterative process in which experts independently provide high and low estimates that converge on consensus through anonymous rounds; acceptable as a starting point, with explicit commitment to refinement in future editions
8An important practical principle: identify the sources of partials before finalising industry selection. The availability of reliable partial estimation data should influence which industries are included in the accounts — not the reverse12. Underlying data sources and allocation rules for all partials should be published alongside the indicator results to support replication and cross-country comparison.
9Step 4: Calculate Ocean Economy Direct GVA. For each ocean industry, multiply the industry’s gross value added from the Use Table by its ocean economy ratio:
10$$\text{Ocean Economy Direct GVA} = \sum_i (\text{GVA}_i \times \text{Ocean ratio}_i)$$
11This yields the total value added directly attributable to ocean economic activity.
12Step 5: Adjust for taxes less subsidies on products. To derive Ocean Economy Direct GDP from Ocean Economy Direct GVA, add the ocean-related share of taxes less subsidies on products:
13$$\text{Ocean Economy Direct GDP} = \text{Ocean Economy Direct GVA} + \text{Ocean share of (taxes - subsidies on products)}$$
14The ocean share of product taxes and subsidies can be estimated in proportion to the ocean economy’s share of total final expenditure on ocean-characteristic products.
15Step 6: Derive indicators from the ocean economy SUT extract. Using the ocean economy sub-matrices and the ocean economy ratios, compute the full set of structural indicators described in Sections 3.2 through 3.6 of this Circular: sector composition indicators (GVA shares, employment shares, HHI), growth and productivity indicators, net GVA, employment structure, and trade and investment indicators.
Data pipeline
1Raw data are collected through surveys (TG-4.2) and administrative records (TG-4.3), harmonised (TG-4.6), and compiled into ocean economy thematic accounts (TG-3.3). The indicator formulas in this Circular are then applied to produce structural indicators, which are formatted for policy application in national budget processes (TG-1.1) and international reporting (TG-2.10).
3.8 Compilation Considerations
Data sources
- 2National accounts (supply and use tables, production accounts)
- 3Business surveys and censuses
- 4Labour force surveys
- 5Trade statistics
- 6Administrative records (vessel registries, port authorities, fishing licences)
7Detailed guidance on the utilisation of these data sources is provided in TG-4.2 Survey Methods for Ocean Economic Activity, TG-4.3 Administrative Data Sources, and TG-4.6 Data Harmonisation and Interoperability.
Informal economy and indicator reliability
1Structural indicators may understate the full extent of the ocean economy where informal economic activities are significant. Small-scale fisheries, artisanal aquaculture, informal coastal tourism services, and subsistence marine harvesting are often inadequately captured by standard business surveys and national accounts. In countries where informal activities constitute a substantial share of ocean-related production and employment, the indicators derived from formal data sources may present an incomplete picture of the ocean economy’s true size and structure. Compilers should document the estimated coverage of formal data sources relative to the full ocean economy, identify sectors where informal activity is likely to be most significant, and consider the supplementary estimation methods described in TG-4.2 and TG-4.3 for improving coverage of informal activities. Reporting these coverage limitations alongside the indicators lets users interpret aggregate statistics with appropriate caution.
Quality indicators
1Compilers should document:
- 2Coverage (which industries and products are included)
- 3Methods for estimating ocean-related shares of mixed industries
- 4Frequency of data collection and time lags
- 5Accuracy estimates and confidence intervals where available
6Quality assurance guidance is provided in TG-0.7 Quality Assurance Principles.
7Publication scope norm. Compilers should publish only what their supply and use tables can support. The starting set is the core four indicators — gross output, GVA, employment, and GFCF — compiled directly from the SUTs; trade in ocean-characteristic products is added only where it can be balanced against the SUTs. Extension to additional indicators is appropriate only after supplementary sources have been properly reconciled with national accounts data. Where partials are used, the underlying data sources and allocation rules should be published alongside indicator results14.
8Metadata requirements. Ocean accounts metadata should document at minimum: sector and industry coverage, the economic concepts applied (including whether a Type 1 or Type 2 approach was used), time period, geographic definition and inland boundary decisions, industrial classification system, data collection method per industry (survey, administrative data, or expert judgement), and any confidentiality suppressions applied. Because ocean account scope and geographic boundary definitions legitimately differ across countries, metadata is the primary mechanism enabling valid cross-country comparisons12.
Comparability considerations
1For time series analysis and international comparison:
- 2Use consistent industry and product classifications
- 3Apply consistent valuation principles (basic prices versus purchasers’ prices)
- 4Document changes in methodology that affect comparability
- 5Use appropriate exchange rates for international comparison
6International comparability of ocean economy indicators has been advanced through several ongoing measurement programmes that compilers may find useful as supplementary references. The European Commission’s annual EU Blue Economy Report provides a systematic methodology for identifying and measuring ocean economy sectors across EU member states using Eurostat structural business statistics9. The OECD’s work on ocean economy measurement, including The Ocean Economy in 2030 (2016), provides a broader international framework for comparable ocean economy statistics. These resources can assist compilers in benchmarking their approaches against established international practices, though the thematic and extended accounting framework described in TG-3.3 remains the primary methodological reference for this Technical Guidance series.
4. Acknowledgements
1This Circular has been approved for public circulation and comment by the GOAP Technical Experts Group in accordance with the Circular Publication Procedure.
2Authors: [To be confirmed]
3Reviewers: [To be confirmed]
5. References
Footnotes
- 1
United Nations et al. (2025). System of National Accounts 2025. New York: United Nations. ST/ESA/STAT/SER.F/2/Rev.6. Chapters 7 (Production account), 15 (Supply and use tables), and 18 (Measuring prices, volumes and productivity). ↩
- 2
World Tourism Organization (2024). Statistical Framework for Measuring the Sustainability of Tourism (SF-MST). Final Draft, February 2024. Chapter 3 on Measuring the economic dimension. See particularly Section 3.3 on “Measuring the economic structure and performance of tourism industries.” ↩
- 3
United Nations (2021). System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - Ecosystem Accounting. Statistical Papers Series F No. 124. New York: United Nations. Chapter 13 on accounting for specific environmental themes, including the ocean economy thematic accounting component. ↩
- 4
OECD (2016). The Ocean Economy in 2030. Paris: OECD Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251724-en. Establishes the industry-plus-ecosystem-services definition of the ocean economy adopted in this Circular. ↩
- 5
LeBoeuf, N., R.F. Rayner, C. Gouldman, Z. Baize, M. Grasso, B. Croll and K. Quigley (2024). “Terminology Related to Ocean and Coastal Economic Activity.” Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics 11(1), Article 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15351/2373-8456.1189. Defines and distinguishes ocean economy, marine economy, blue economy, ocean enterprise and new blue economy as used by NOAA, drawing on OECD (2016) and World Bank (2017). ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4
- 6
World Bank and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2017). The Potential of the Blue Economy: Increasing Long-term Benefits of the Sustainable Use of Marine Resources for Small Island Developing States and Coastal Least Developed Countries. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Establishes the development-context definition of the blue economy requiring economic growth to be coupled with environmental preservation and social equity. ↩
- 7
United Nations (2014). Blue Economy Concept Paper. Released ahead of the UN Sustainable Development Summit; framed the blue economy as a macroeconomic tool for poverty eradication and sustainable development, subsequently embedded in SDG 14. ↩
- 8
High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (2020). Transformations for a Sustainable Ocean Economy: A Vision for Protection, Production and Prosperity. Sets out the action agenda linking effective protection, sustainable production, and equitable prosperity, including the “100% Commitment” to sustainable management of national waters. ↩
- 9
European Commission (annual). The EU Blue Economy Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. The report provides a comprehensive methodology for identifying and measuring ocean economy sectors using Eurostat structural business statistics and national accounts data. ↩ ↩2
- 10
This four-dimensional framework draws on the analytical approaches described in OECD (2016). The Ocean Economy in 2030. Paris: OECD Publishing. ↩
- 11
World Tourism Organization (2024). SF-MST, Section 2.5 on Measuring the sustainability of tourism at sub-national levels. The destination-level measurement approaches described in Section 3.7 are directly adaptable for coastal and marine economic zone analysis. ↩
- 12
Colgan, C.S. (2022). A Guide to Creating Core Ocean GDP Accounts. Global Ocean Accounts Partnership. Available at: https://www.oceanaccounts.org/a-guide-to-creating-core-ocean-gdp-accounts/ ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4 ↩5 ↩6 ↩7
- 13
United Nations et al. (2025). System of National Accounts 2025, Chapter 15 on Supply and use tables provides the methodological foundation for deriving structural indicators. ↩
- 14
Global Ocean Accounts Partnership (2025). Valuing the Ocean Economy: Lessons from Earlier Adopters. GOAP Publication. Available at: https://oceanaccounts.org/publications/valuing-the-ocean-economy-lessons-from-earlier-adopters/ ↩ ↩2 ↩3 ↩4
- 15
United Nations (2008). International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), Revision 4. Statistical Papers Series M No. 4/Rev.4. New York: United Nations. ↩
- 16
These indicators follow standard practice in economic structure analysis. See Eurostat (2013). European System of Accounts (ESA 2010). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. ↩
- 17
UNWTO and UNSD (2008). International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics 2008, Chapter 7 provides guidance on employment measures applicable to sector thematic accounts. ↩
- 18
United Nations et al. (2025). System of National Accounts 2025, Chapter 18 on Measuring prices, volumes and productivity provides guidance on deflation methods. ↩
- 19
OECD (2001). Measuring Productivity: OECD Manual. Paris: OECD Publishing. Provides comprehensive guidance on productivity measurement applicable to sectoral analysis. ↩
- 20
The perpetual inventory method is described in OECD (2009). Measuring Capital: OECD Manual. 2nd edition. Paris: OECD Publishing. For ocean-industry-specific asset valuation, see also TG-3.1 Asset Accounts. ↩
- 21
For multi-factor productivity analysis, see Jorgenson, D.W., F.M. Gollop, and B.M. Fraumeni (1987). Productivity and U.S. Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ↩
- 22
This decomposition follows standard growth accounting practice. See SNA 2025 Chapter 18 for methodological details. ↩
- 23
United Nations et al. (2025). System of National Accounts 2025, Chapter 15, para 15.137: “Gross value added minus depreciation of fixed assets minus depletion of non-produced natural resources equals net value added.” See also TG-1.1 Section 3.1 on the policy rationale for net measures. ↩
- 24
Industry-level employment data follow ISIC classification, consistent with the industry classification in TG-3.3 Economic Activity Relevant to the Ocean. ↩
- 25
ILO (2018). Guidelines concerning statistics of international labour migration. 20th International Conference of Labour Statisticians. Geneva: ILO. ↩
- 26
ILO (2013). Decent Work Indicators: Guidelines for Producers and Users of Statistical and Legal Framework Indicators. 2nd edition. Geneva: ILO. ↩
- 27
Balassa, B. (1965). “Trade Liberalisation and ‘Revealed’ Comparative Advantage.” The Manchester School 33(2): 99-123. ↩
- 28
IMF (2009). Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual. 6th edition (BPM6). Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Chapter 10 on goods and services, particularly Section C on transport services. ↩
- 29
UNCTAD (2022). World Investment Report 2022. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Chapter on sustainable blue economy investment. ↩
- 30
United Nations (2000). Classification of the Functions of Government (COFOG). In Classifications of Expenditure According to Purpose. Statistical Papers Series M No. 84. New York: United Nations. ↩
- 31
World Tourism Organization (2024). SF-MST, Table 3.9 on “Tourism related Functions of Government — COFOG classes.” The mapping in Table 3.4 adapts this approach for ocean economy functions. ↩
- 32
The compilation procedure adapts the SNA 2025 supply and use table compilation methodology (Chapter 15, paras 15.9, 15.130—15.139) and the tourism ratio approach from the SF-MST (paras 2.30—2.31, 3.27—3.28). For the ocean economy context, see also TG-3.3 Section 3.4 on ocean economy SUT compilation. ↩
- 33
Data source guidance aligns with TG-4.2 Survey Methods for Ocean Economic Activity, TG-4.3 Administrative Data Sources, and TG-4.6 Data Harmonisation and Interoperability in the Ocean Accounts Technical Guidance series. ↩